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Sources and Reviewers
A PDF table showing the main sources by Province and ecoregion can be downloaded here.
In addition we are pleased to acknowledge the considerable quantity of expert advice and input, notably from the expert reviewers listed below. A summary listing of the more important reference works is also provided in HTML at the end of this page.
Expert Reviewers
Asa Andersson - Baltic Sea
Jeff Ardron - NE Europe
Allison Arnold - New Zealand
Mike Beck - Temperate W Hemisphere
Ahmet Birsel - Europe
John Bolton - Southern Africa
George Branch - Southern Africa
Georgina Bustamente - Latin America
Rodrigo Bustamente - Latin America and Australia
Carel Drijver - Europe
Jose Farina - Temperate South America
Sergio Floeter - Tropical Atlantic
Angus Gascoigne - Sao Tome and Principe
Charlie Griffiths - East Africa
Huw Griffiths - Antarctic
Randy Hagenstein - Alaska/Bering
Chris Howe - New Zealand
David John - West Africa
Kenneth Kassem - SE Asia
Jerry Kemp - E Africa and Middle East
Phil Kramer - Wider Caribbean
Josh Laughren - Canada
Katrin Linse - Antarctic and Magellanic
Gilly Llewellyn - SE Asia
Melanie McField - Latin America
Vangie Miclat - SE Asia
Kasin Moosa - Indonesia
Alexis Morgan - Canada
Dag Nagoda - Barents Sea
Sergio Navarete - Temperate S America
Kate Newman - SE Asia
Ray Nias - Antarctica
(Bina) Maya Paul - Canada
Sian Pullen - Europe
Callum Roberts - Pacific
Rod Salm - Indo-Pacific
Katherine Short - Europe
Vassily Spiridonov - Arctic Russia
Andrew Smith - Pacific
Jen Smith - Canada
Victor Springer - Pacific
Juan Luis Suárez de Vivero - Europe
Katarina Veem - Baltic Sea
Charlie Veron - Tropics
Mohideen Wafar - India
Carden Wallace - Andaman/Java
Kathy Walls - New Zealand
David Woodland - SE Asia
Major References
Full references are provided in the PDF attachment. The following is a selection of some of the main references that have been used. In the interests of space we have excluded references that dealt only with single ecoregion boundaries or merely reiterated information from other sources.
Adey WH, Steneck RS (2001) Thermogeography over time creates biogeographic regions: a temperature/space/time - integrated model and an abundance-weighted test for benthic marine algae. Journal of Phycology 37: 677-698.
Allen GR (2002) Indo-Pacific coral-reef fishes as indicators of conservation hotspots. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali 2: 921-926.
Awad AA, Griffiths CL, Turpie JK (2002) Distribution of South African marine benthic invertebrates applied to the selection of priority conservation areas. Diversity and Distributions 8: 129-145.
Beck MW, Odaya M (2001) Ecoregional planning in marine environments: identifying priority sites for conservation in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 11: 235-242.
Bianchi CN, Morri C. 2000. Marine Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea: Situation, Problems and Prospects for Future Research. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40: 367-376.
Bolton JJ, Clerck OD, John DM (2003) Related initiatives: Seaweed diversity patterns in Sub-Saharan Africa Marine Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Known and the Unknown., Cape Town, South Africa, pp 310.
Bolton JJ, Leliaert F, Clerck OD, Anderson RJ, Stegenga H, Engledow HE, Coppejans E (2004) Where is the western limit of the tropical Indian Ocean seaweed flora? An analysis of intertidal seaweed biogeography on the east coast of South Africa. Marine Biology 144: 51-59.
Boschi E (2000) Species of Decapod Crustaceans and their distribution in the American marine zoogeographic provinces. Revista de Investigacion y Desarrollo Pesquero 13: 7-136.
Boschi E, Gavio M (2005) On the distribution of decapod crustaceans from the Magellan Biogeographic Province and the Antarctic region. Scientia Marina 69 (Suppl. 2): 195-200.
Briggs JC (1974) Marine Zoogeography. McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.
Briggs JC (2004) A marine center of origin: reality and conservation. In: Lomolino MV, Heaney LR (eds) Frontiers of Biogeography: new directions in the geography of nature. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts, pp 255-269.
Bustamante RH, Branch GM (1996) Large scale patterns and trophic structure of Southern African rocky shores: the roles of geographic variation and wave exposure. Journal of Biogeography 23: 339-351.
Castro B, de Miranda L (1998) Physical oceanography of the Western Atlantic continental shelf located between 4°N and 34°S. In: Robinson A, Brink K (eds) The Sea. The Global Coastal Ocean - regional studies and syntheses. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pp 209-251.
Ch'ng KL (1993) South East Asian Marine Region. Report from an IUCN/CNPPA working group of representatives from South East Asian nations. Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment, Malaysia, Malaysia, pp 18.
Commonwealth of Australia (2005) National Marine Bioregionalisation of Australia. Summary. Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.
Dinter W (2001) Biogeography of the OSPAR Maritime Area. A synopsis of biogeographical distribution patterns described for the North-East Atlantic. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, Germany.
Ekman S (1953) Zoogeography of the Sea. Sidgwick and Jackson, London.
Floeter SR, Behrens MD, Ferreira CEL, Paddack MJ, Horn MH (2005 in press) Geographical gradients of marine herbivorous fishes: patterns and processes. Marine Biology.
Floeter SR, Gasparini JL (2000) The southwestern Atlantic reef fish fauna: composition and zoogeographic patterns. Journal of Fish Biology 56: 1099-1114.
Floeter SR, Guimarães RZP, Rocha LA, Ferreira CEL, Rangel CA, Gasparini JL (2001) Geographic variation in reef-fish assemblages along the Brazilian coast. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 423-431.
Garibaldi L, Caddy JF. 1998. Biogeographic characterization of Mediterranean and Black Seas faunal provinces using GIS procedures. Ocean and Coastal Management 39: 211-227.
Gosliner TM (2002) Biodiversity, endemism, and evolution of opisthobranch gastropods on Indo-Pacific coral reefs. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali 2: 937-940.
Green A, Mous P. 2006. Delineating the Coral Triangle, its ecoregions and functional seascapes. Report based on an expert workshop held at the TNC Coral Triangle Center, Bali Indonesia (April - May 2003), and on expert consultations held in June and August 2005. Version 3.1 (February 2006). Pages 50: The Nature Conservancy, Coral Triangle Center (Bali, Indonesia) and the Global Marine Initiative, Indo-Pacific Resource Centre (Brisbane, Australia).
Green EP, Short FT (2003) World Atlas of Seagrasses. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA, pp 298.
Hardman-Mountford N, Koranteng K, Price ARG (2000) The Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem. In: Sheppard C (ed) Seas at the Millennium: an environmental evaluation. Elsevier Science Ltd., Netherlands, pp 773-796.
Huggins AE, et al. 2007. Biodiversity Conservation Assessment of the Insular Caribbean Using the Caribbean Decision Support System, Technical Report.: The Nature Conservancy. Also online at: http://conserveonline.org/workspaces/Caribbean.conservation/CDSS_summary_report_final.pdf.
Hutchison C (2005) The geological framework. In: Gupta A (ed) Physical Geography of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 3-23.
ICES (2004) Information and advice about appropriate eco-regions for the implementation of an ecosystem approach in European waters. In: ICES (ed) Report of the ICES Advisory Committee on Fishery Management and Advisory Committee on Ecosystems, 2004. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Copenhagen, pp 115-131.
Kankaanpää P, Huntington H, Baldursson S, Sippola A-L, Kaitala S, Zöckler C, Gunn A, Mirutenko M, Prokosch P, Tishkov A (2001) Arctic Flora and Fauna: status and conservation. Edita, Helsinki, pp 272.
Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Volume 1: Antarctic, Arctic, Mediterranean, Northwest Atlantic, Northeast Atlantic and Baltic. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Washington, D.C., USA, pp 219.
Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Volume 2: Wider Caribbean, West Africa and South Atlantic. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Washington, D.C., USA, pp 93.
Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Volume 3: Central Indian Ocean, Arabian Seas, East Africa and East Asian Seas. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Washington, D.C., USA, pp 146
Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Volume 4: South Pacific, Northeast Pacific, Northwest Pacific, Southeast Pacific and Australia/New Zealand. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Washington, D.C., USA, pp 212.
Kemp JM (2005) Biogeographic patterns and marine biodiversity in the Arabian / North-west Indian Ocean region. Unpublished.
Lourie SA (2006) Report on challenges in biogeographic classification of Sumatra/Java and the Eastern Indian Ocean. Unpublished.
Lyne V, Last P, Scott R, Dunn J, Peters D, Ward T (1998) Large Marine Domains of Australia's EEZ. CSIRO Marine Research and Department of Environment and Land Management, Tasmania. Report commissioned by Environment Australia.
Mahon R, Brown SK, Zwanenburg KCT, D. Bruce Atkinson, Buja KR, Claflin L, Howell GD, Monaco ME, O'Boyle RN, Sinclair M (1998) Assemblages and biogeography of demersal fishes of the east coast of North America. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 55: 1704-1738.
McCoy ED, Heck KL (1976) Biogeography of corals, seagrasses and mangroves: an alternative to the center of origin concept. Systematic Zoology 25: 201-210.
Meyer CP, Geller JB, Paulay G (2005) Fine scale endemism on coral reefs: archipelagic differentiation in turbinid gastropods. Evolution 59: 113-125.
Montiel A, Gerdes D, Arntz W (2005) Distributional patterns of shallow-water polychaetes in the Magellan region: a zoogeographical and ecological synopsis. Scientia Marina 69 (Suppl. 2): 123-133.
Myers RF (1999) Micronesian Reef Fishes: a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of Micronesia. Coral Graphics, Territory of Guam, USA.
Omori M, Takahashi K, Moriwake N, Osada K, Kimura T, Kinoshita F, Maso S, Shimoike K, Hibino K (2004) Coral Reefs of Japan. Ministry of Environment, Tokyo.
Pauly D, Christensen V (1993) Stratified models of Large Marine Ecosystems: a general approach and an application to the South China Sea. In: Sherman K, Alexander LM, Gold BD (eds) Large Marine Ecosystems: Stress, Mitigation, and Sustainability. AAAS Press, Washington, DC, pp 148-174.
PICES (2004) Marine Ecosystems of the North Pacific. North Pacific Marine Science Organization, Sidney, B.C., Canada.
Powles H, Vendette V, Siron R, O'Boyle B (2004) Proceedings of the Canadian Marine Ecoregions Workshop. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Ottowa.
Randall JE (1998) Zoogeography of shore fishes of the Indo-Pacific Region. Zoological Studies 37: 227-268.
Roberts CM, McLean CJ, Allen GR, Hawkins JP, McAllister DE, Mittermeier C, Schueler F, Spalding M, Veron JEN, Wells F, Vynne C, Werner T (2002) Marine biodiversity hotspots and conservation priorities for tropical reefs. Science 295: 1280-1284.
Robertson DR, Grove JS, McCosker JE (2004) Tropical transpacific shore fishes. Pacific Science 58: 507-565.
Robinson AR, Brink KH (1998) The Global Coastal Ocean, Regional Studies and Syntheses The Sea: Ideas and Observation on Progress in the Study of the Seas. Volume 11. John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 1062.
Robinson AR, Brink KH (2006) The Global Coastal Ocean, Interdisciplinary Regional Studies and Syntheses The Sea: Ideas and Observation on Progress in the Study of the Seas. Volume 14. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, pp 1567.
Sheppard C (2000) Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Volume 1. Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK.
Sheppard C (2000) Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Volume 2. Regional Chapters: The Indian Ocean to the Pacific. Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK.
Sherman K, Alexander LM (1989) Biomass Yields and Geography of Large Marine Ecosystems. Westview Press, Boulder.
Smith ML, Carpenter KE, Waller RW (2002) An introduction to the oceanography, geology, biogeography, and fisheries of the tropical and subtropical western central Atlantic. In: Carpenter KE (ed) The Living Resources of the Western Central Atlantic. Volume 1. Introduction, molluscs, crustaceans, hagfishes, sharks, batoid fishes and chimaeras. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, pp 1-23.
Spalding MD, Blasco F, Field CD (1997) World Mangrove Atlas. International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan.
Spalding MD, Ravilious C, Green EP (2001) World Atlas of Coral Reefs. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Spencer T, Spalding MD (2005) Coral reefs of Southeast Asia: controls, patterns and human impacts. In: Gupta A (ed) Physical Geography of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 402-427.
Springer VG (1982) Pacific Plate Biogeography, with Special Reference to Shorefishes. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC.
Steneck RS, Graham MH, Bourque BJ, Corbett D, Erlandson JM, Estes JA, Tegner MJ (2002) Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation 29: 436-459.
Sullivan Sealey K, Bustamante G (1999) Setting Geographic Priorities for Marine Conservation in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA.
Taviani M. 2002. The Mediterranean benthos from late Miocene up to present: ten million years of dramatic climatic and geologic vicissitudes. Biologia Marina Mediterranea 9: 445-463.
Thackway R, Cresswell ID (1998) Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation for Australia: an ecosystem-based classification for marine and coastal environments. Version 3.3. Environment Australia, Commonwealth Department of the Environment. Canberra.
Turpie JK, Beckley LE, Katua SM (2000) Biogeography and the selection of priority areas for conservation of South African coastal fishes. Biological Conservation 92: 59-72.
Van den Hoek C (1984) World-wide latitudinal and longitudinal seaweed distribution patterns and their possible causes as illustrated by the distribution of Rhodophytan genera. Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen 38: 227-257.
Venkataraman K, Wafar M (2005) Coastal and Marine Biodiversity of India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 34: 57-75.
Veron JEN (2000) Corals of the World. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.
Wallace CC (2002) Journey to the heart of the centre: origins of high marine faunal diversity in the central Indo-Pacific from the perspective of an acropologist. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali 1: 33-39.
Wallace CC, Muir PR (2005) Biodiversity of the Indian Ocean from the perspective of staghorn corals (Acropora spp). Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 34: 42-49.
Walls K (1994) The New Zealand Experience in Developing a Marine Biogeographic Regionalisation. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
Wells FE (2002) Centres of species richness and endemism of shallow water marine molluscs in the tropical Indo-West Pacific. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali 2: 941-945.
Wilkinson T, Bezaury-Creel J, Hourigan T, Wiken E, Madden C, Padilla M, Agardy T, Herrmann H (2005 near final draft) Spaces: North American Marine Ecoregions. Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada.
Wong P (2005) The coastal environment of Southeast Asia. In: Gupta A (ed) Physical Geography of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 177-192.
WWF (1999) WWF Africa Ecoregion Assessment Workshop participants notes. WWF-US. Unpublished.
WWF (2004) The Eastern African Marine Ecoregion Vision: A large scale conservation approach to the management of biodiversity. World Wide Fund for Nature, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Nature picture credits (top to bottom, left to right): Photo © Mark Spalding (fish and coral, Chagos ecoregion); Photo © Mark Spalding (Big Sur coast, Northern Califormia ecoregion).
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